Describe the cognitive processes required when preparing for examinations The WritePass Journal

Describe the cognitive processes required when preparing for examinations Introduction Describe the cognitive processes required when preparing for examinations ). The aptitude to process information selectively through attention, and retain information in a way in which is accessible through the working memory are two imperative aspects of cognitive capacity. While evidence indicates that attention plays little role in the maintenance of information encoded in the memory (Fougnie, 2008), it has been suggested that there are strong links between the working memory and attention faculties of the cognitive mind during the encoding and manipulation process of knowledge acquisition (Cherry 2014; Fougnie, 2008). Theoretical models of the working memory commonly describe a role for attention. However, between these different models, the exact role for attention has not been agreed on and remains vaguely unclear, thus debates about which processing stage that attentional selection occurs (Fougnie, 2008). The most widely accepted model of memory is the Working Memory Model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974. In this model, attention is the mediator between sensory memory and the central executive, where sub functions such as the phonological store and the visuospatial sketch pad, two short term memory stores, hold short term auditory and visual information respectively. These are known as the ‘slave systems’ and provide evidence as to how humans are able to multitask. According to the working memory model, the information from these slave systems are then transferred back to the central executive whereby they are encoded in the long-term memory (Fougnie, 2008). These findings provide an outline to which cognitive processes occur during exam preparation, where students attempt to retain information that they will later on retrieve. Yet, further research suggests that learning and retaining information for exams may be a more complex procedure than those outlined by memory models (Hill, 2009). Ebbinghaus (1885) investigated the method in which the retention and forgetting of information occur. The establishment of the forgetting curve provided insight into how memories dissipate over a period of time (Groome, Brace, Dewart, Edgar, Edgar, Esgate, Kemp, Pike Stafford, 2006). Similarly, Bartlett’s Story Recall experiment (1932) lent insight to the notion that information is required to hold semantic value in order to be remembered (Groome, et al., 2006). Thus, according to Hill (2009), the most effective ways for students to memorise information for their exams is through repetition, elaboration and organisation. To further elaborate on the suggestions of Ebbinghaus (1885), Bartlett (1932) and Hill (2009), researchers proposed several studies in sustenance. Ebbinghaus (1885) further stated that in order to avoid forgetting and enhance memory, repetition was significantly valuable. Making use of the ‘mind’s voice’, the phonological loop, the cycle o f learning and accurately recalling strengthens the memory, thus making exam preparation easier as less time will be required to re-learn the material, hence why revising for exams more than once improves recall (Hill, 2009). Moreover, in favour of Bartlett (1932), it has been found that information possessing semantic value is recalled more efficiently (Craik Tulving, 1975; Ley, 1978). It may be hypothesised that the explanation of is deduced to the attention function of the working memory selecting meaningful information in order to enhance the individual’s performance based on prior learning and experience. Based on these findings, mnemonics may be suggested as an effective revision tool, since associating information with vivid visual imagery and words has proven enhanced recall (Bower, 1972). Furthermore, presenting information in a structured manner in which meaning is conveyed has been found to facilitate recall (Hill, 2009). By grouping or ordering materials in an or ganised manner, the individual will take advantage of the mind’s existing method of representing information semantically, thus making the information easier to encode and retrieve through memory. For example, Ley et al (1978) found that presenting medical information to patients in an organised and structured way improved their recall up to 25%. Thus, it is suggested that students adequately organise their learning materials in a semantic manner in order to prepare for their exams in the most resourceful way. Although the literature has provided rich evidence to support the notion that the memory and attention faculties play a major role in exam preparation, there are also relevant limitations in need of addressing. The working memory model has been criticised as being invalid, as when new studies propose findings that do not fit with the current working memory model, the working memory model is modified in order to accommodate the new findings. This makes it difficult to falsify the model or replace it with a new one, and indicates that any research findings based on the working memory model are void (Neath Nairne , 1995). Moreover, the findings of Ebbinghaus (1885) have been questioned, as the subject of his study was himself. Without any objective findings, researchers believe the results of the forgetting curve to be unreliable (Hill, 2009). Despite these criticisms, later research based on both the working memory model and the forgetting curve has successfully uncovered new findings on the cognitive processes involved in memory (Groome, et al., 2006). In conclusion, the findings in the literature have lent ample support to the notion that exam preparation heavily relies on the cognitive processes of attention and memory. The literature has indicated that these two faculties work conjointly in order to achieve long-term memory. Studies on the Working Memory Model have identified the specific roles of the two cognitive processes, and the literature has provided further support on how the working memory model is vital in exam revision through detailed descriptions of these functions. Studies on memory retention and forgetting have implicated that repetition, elaboration and organisation are the key skills that an individual needs to employ whist preparing for exams in order to maintain an optimal memory capacity for the revised information. Regardless of the limitations associated with the research done on memory, the working memory model still stands as a strong representative for the cognitive process involved in exam preparation. References Baddeley, A.D. Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory, in G.H. Bower (Ed.),  The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. Vol. VIII. 47-90, New York: Academic Press. Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bower, G.H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In L. Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in Learning and Memory, 51-88. Broadbent, D. E. (1957) A mechanical model for human attention and immediate memory. Psychological Review, 64. 205-215. Cherry, K. (2014). Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips. Retrieved from: http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/memory_tips.htm Accessed: 12/03/14 Craik, F.I.M. Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General, 104. 268-294. Cowan, N. (1995) Attention and memory: an integrated framework. New York: Oxford University Press. Dosher, B.A. (1999) Item interference and time delays in working memory: Immediate serial recall. International Journal of Psychology Special Issue: Short term/working memory, 34. 276-284. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). ÃÅ"ber das Gedchtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Leipzig: Dunker Humbolt. Estes, W. K. (1969)  Reinforcement  in human learning. In J. Tapp (Ed.), Reinforcement and behavior. New York: Academic Press. Fougnie, D. (2008). The Relationship Between Attention and Working Memory. New Research on Short Term Memory. 1-45. Groome, D., Brace, N., Dewart, H., Edgar, G., Edgar, H., Esgate, A., Kemp, R., Pike, G. Stafford, D. (2006). An introduction to cognitive psychology. Processes and disorders. Second Edition. East Sussex: Psychology Press. Hill, G. (2009). AS A Level Psychology Through Diagrams: Oxford Revision Guides. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Julesz, B. (1971). Foundations of cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kandel, E. R. (1976) Cellular basis of behavior: An introduction to behavioural neurobiology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Livingstone, M.S. and Hubel, D.H. (1988) Segregation of form, colour, movement and depth: Anatomy, physiology and perception. Science, 240. 740–749. Ley, P. (1978)  Memory  for medical information. In Gruneberg, M.M., Morris, P.E. Sykes, R.N. (eds) Practical Aspects of  Memory. London: Academic Press. Lu, Z.L. Dosher, B.A. (2007). Cognitive Psychology. Scholarpedia.2(8), 2769. Luce, D. R. (1959) Individual choice behavior; a theoretical analysis. New York: Wiley. Neath, I. Nairne, J.S. (1995). Word length effects in immediate memory: Overwriting the trace decay theory. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2, 429-441. Posner, M.I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25. Roediger III, H. L. (2002) Processing approaches to cognition: The impetus from the levels-of-processing framework. Memory, 10. 319-332. Treisman, A. M. (1969) Strategies and models of selective attention. Psychological Review, 76. 282-299. Ungerleider, L.G. Mishkin, M. (1982) In D.J. Ingle, M.A. Goodale, R.J.W. Mansfield (Eds.). Analysis of visual behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. von Neumann, J. Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Proposal paper assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Proposal paper assignment - Essay Example New media is especially applied through social media by teenagers to create their own social networks and interact with others through them Veltman (2006). Many researchers continue to investigate the impacts of social media on society with different studies focusing different specific segments, including youth, children, young adults, adults, and even the elderly. Even though a lot of research has been done on the impact of social media on the youth and particularly teenagers, not much has been covered about new media in general. Social media is just part of new media and there is still a significant gap in knowledge about how to minimize the negative impacts of new media on teenagers (Gross et al., 2002). According to Veltman (2006), new media is a broad term encompassing the amalgamation of traditional media with the interactive power provided by modern information and communication technology, including computers; computer enabled communication devices, and the Internet. ... This paper specifically focuses on identification of the various components making up new media, the positive impacts of new media on teenagers, the negative impacts of new media on teenagers, and approaches of minimizing negative impacts of new media on teenagers. Research Background This study examines one major dependent variable, which is the impact of new media on teenagers. This dependent variable is affected by the ‘elements’ of new media, all of which make up the independent variables. Although there are many elements associated with new media, this study will focus on five main independent variables, including the Internet, social media, access to portable communication devices, access to computers, and communication support platforms (Cyber cafes) that serve teenagers alongside other groups of people. The first independent variable in the study is the Internet. The Internet is defined by Jones (2003) as a worldwide system of computer networks in which users all over the world can access through a computer to communicate with other computers, share information, obtain information or even directly communicate with users on other computers on the network. Veltman (2006) points out that currently the Internet is an extensive, public, cooperative and self-sustaining system that billions of people around the world have access to. It also consumes a portion of the total resources committed to public communication networks globally. The second independent variable in this study is social media. Many definitions have been given to social media depending on the various approaches towards the concept. According to McKenna & Barg

Geographical Relocation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Geographical Relocation - Essay Example Th following ppr is rport, which covrs th issus rltd with th xptrition procss of th workr from London, UK to Mdrid, Spin. Hrin, I im to nlys th cs of such rloction, whn mking nlysis of th country of rloction (th conomy of Spin, tx nd hlthcr systm, insurnc nd politics), providing ovrviw of living nd working conditions nd invstigting th wys tht my fcilitt th rloction nd dpttion procss of workr who xptrit from London to Mdrid. Whn providing th rport I will mk n ccnt on th policy of our orgniztion tht clrly idntifis its gols in ch stg nd thus will rsult in bttr intrntionl prformnc of xptrits. Trining should nvr focus primrily on bnfiting th individul xptrit. Rthr, it should cntr on mting th orgniztion's gols. It should try to mtch th xptrit's knowldg, skills nd comptncis with thos rquird for ch prticulr ssignmnt. Lik most othr trining, its succss should b msurd by how much th orgniztion bnfits, not how much th individul might grow or lrn. xptrition, th prctic of snding hom country mngrs to othr country loctions, is populr, lbit xpnsiv, prctic mong intrntionl corportions (O'Boyl, 1989). xptrits, fmilir with th cultur, lngug, nd customs of hdqurtrs, cn fcilitt th trnsfr of corport cultur btwn hdqurtrs nd th subsidiry, nhncing communiction nd coordintion (Boycigillr, 1991; Rosnzwig, 1994). Thy cn lso provid tchnicl nd mngril skills tht my not b immditly vilbl t th locl lvl. Somtims usd to s tmporry stffing nds, xptrits r lso vlubl s mchnisms for corport control in vitl mrkts. Finlly, xptrits my b utilizd to nforc nd protct th compny's intrsts. xptrition is not without costs. In ddition to th obvious finncil rsourcs ncssry to trnsfr mngr nd his or hr fmily physiclly to Spin, thr r hiddn costs s wll. ssignmnts oftn my not b compltd, ncssitting th rplcmnt of th xptrit (Bird & Dunbr, 1991; Blck, 1988). In ordr for th rloction procss to b ffctiv, th xptrit tht is bing snt to Mdrid, should djust to locl customs nd try to incrs his job stisfction nd ffctivnss. Th conflict t workplc tht might ppr round diffrncs on norms nd cultur my frustrt th workr nd cus th convrs ffct. Morovr, th workr might wnt to rturn to his formr work in hom country nd in such wy cus th unncssry xpnss for th compny tht invstd mony in his xptrition. nothr hiddn cost ssocitd with xptrition is th inbility to rtin th xcutiv upon rturn to th hom country. Mny xptrits do not hv gurntd positions t hom onc thy succssfully complt thir ssignmnts. Th xcutiv oftn rturns to find himslf/hrslf on th priphry of th orgniztionl infrstructur. For tht rson, bfor dprtur, xptrit should b rssurd tht his workplc in hom compny will b kpt upon th nd of his xptrition. xptrit pr-dprtur knowldg cn contribut to both work nd gnrl djustmnt ovrss (Blck, 1988), whn such knowldg includs informtion bout th trnsition. This cn rduc mny of th uncrtintis ssocitd with th nw rol. Work djustmnt includs th xtnt to which th xptrit is bl to djust to th lvl of rsponsibility ssocitd with th ssignmnt s wll s to his/hr py schdul. djustmnt to th gnrl nvironmnt rfrs to th individul's bility to djust to non-work fctors such s housing conditions, shopping, nd hlth fcilitis. Intrstingly, prvious intrntionl xprinc ws rptdly found not to prdict xptrit nd spousl gnrl djustmnt during xptrition (Blck & Grgrsn, 1991b). This suggsts tht mny spcts of ovrss xprinc r not gnrlizbl from on ssignmnt loction to nothr or tht xptrit mngrs r not bl to trnsfr thir lrnings concrning djustmnt in on country to nothr.

Observation as a Tool of Inquiry Essay Example for Free

Observation as a Tool of Inquiry Essay The following characteristics I will describe in video clips one, three, four, and seven of the chapter one lab activity will help me identify and rank which of the people in these four videos is the most developmentally advanced, specifically in the motor skill of throwing a ball. First, I will identify the most proficient ball thrower and then create a developmental â€Å"throwing continuum† from the most to least advanced. Following this continuum, the constraints important to the throw will be explained as well as how a change in one constraint might change the throwing pattern. On my â€Å"throwing continuum† the number one is the lowest rank, meaning least developmentally advanced, in contrast with the number four ranking most developmentally advanced. Chapter One Lab Activity â€Å"throwing continuum† is visually represented bellow: Ranking: 1 2 3 4 Video clip #: #7 #1 #3 #4 This representation displays that the person in video clip number four is the most developmentally advanced at the motor skill of throwing a ball, followed by video clip number three as the second most advanced, then video clip number one coming in third, and lastly video clip number seven ranked number one on the â€Å"throwing continuum,† as the least proficient. What makes these videos distinguishable in terms of developmental advancement are the characteristics of each person’s throw. Video clip number seven ranked the lowest on the continuum because he showed a lack of experience expressed in characteristics such as the loss of balance, shallow throw, slight tilt of the ankle, and using a larger ball. Video clip number one was ranked second because considering his feet stayed stationary and together, and that he reached the ball behind his head to gather speed, make it evident that he is still primitive; yet, maintaining his balance  regardless of his knees rocking back and forth after casting the ball, shows a higher developmental ranking than the child in video clip number seven. The second most advanced thrower is in video clip number three. Characteristics that show some signs of experience are his comfort casting the ball at a jogging start, the shift of weight between his legs before throwing, and the actual height and distance of the throw. However, his loss of balance shows lack of developmental advancement. What distinguishes the person in video clip four as the most developmentally advanced is the standing start with a single step forward for force, the height of the throw, and how balance is maintained throughout. Multiple constraints may be important to the throw. An example of a (structural) individualistic constraint would be limb length. Perhaps if the person in video clip number three did not have such long legs he may not have lost his balance after his throw. An environmental constraint of importance would be wind. If wind is interfering with a throw, it is likely that the target will be missed. Another example would be if the thrower in video clip number three were to have his jogging start on a slippery floor. In this scenario the thrower would most likely fall, undoubtedly changing the throwing pattern. In a separate scenario, if the target on the receiving end of the throw is stationary and then begins to shuffle from side to side this would increase the difficulty level for the thrower, epitomizing a task constraint. The observations I have made in this assignment were both displayed in a table and supported through explanations describing various characteristics that proved the validity of my â€Å"throwing continuum† rankings. Individual, environmental, and task constraints can all be important to the motor skill of throwing. Through using the element of observation as a tool of inquiry, I have reinforced that my statements are credible.

How Electronic Commerce Is Affecting American Industry Essay example --

ELECTRONIC-Commerce How It Is Affecting American Industry The Internet over the past few years has seen a huge increase in online businesses and consumers. Electronic-commerce is expected to generate $36 billion in revenue during 1999, up 140% from last year alone.[1] With such a huge amount of money to be made on the Internet it is becoming very appealing for small businesses and start-up companies to try and make their niche in e-commerce. The Internet is drastically affecting the way companies and people conduct business now. E-commerce encourages growth in existing as well as new businesses because of lower overhead costs, the huge consumer base and the freedom of information flow. However the online revolution has created a large amount of competition for consumers between businesses despite the fact that the public does not yet have total confidence in the e-commerce market. The Internet is a free and seemingly boundless medium that is distributed to over 200 million people worldwide.[2] This creates a large market for companies that are competing on the Internet, which acts as a level playing field. Small companies can compete with larger vendors by getting their product and prices seen by anyone interested online while not being limited by their locale or to just their local area consumers. Another reason why e-commerce is so attractive are the low star-up costs required to start a company. A basic site can be created with as little as a couple hundred dollars, a computer and a little imagination. A business can then be run from a home or network instead of a large expensive building where many employees and machines are needed. Because of this online businesses can sell their products for much less by passing their ... ... Internet shopping is expected to increase by at least 50% into the millennium, which leaves much room for growth and new opportunities for new and adventurous companies.[4] E-commerce has opened up a new market in American industry that is forcing companies to become part of the online revolution or suffer the consequences in the long run. The freedom of the Internet combined with the huge amounts of information make for a more easily accessible environment that will revolutionize the way all business is conducted in the future. Notes 1. Shop.org. 30 October 1999. http://www.shop.org/nr/99/071999.html 2. NUA - Internet Surveys. 03 November 1999. http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_online/index.html 3. C-Net. 1997. 30 October 1999. http://sellitontheweb.com/ezine/news0296.shtml 4. C-Net. 31 October 30, 1999. http://sellitontheweb.com/ezine/news0310.shtml

A dollar a day language analysis Essay

Recently, in the Daily Telegraph Angus McDonald wrote an opinion piece about how Indian children are being exploited for cheap labour and how the government is not dealing with the problem as Angus believes they are accountable for the responsibility. This issue has recently blown up in the media, due to the recent information about the average day of a child labour living in India. Angus McDonald uses emotive language, logical evidence, case studies , appeals to a sense of justice and a photograph, along with an alarmist tone to convey the message that the government need to step up and stop child labour. Angus McDonald uses emotive language to make the reader empathise with the child labourers. McDonald uses a highly descriptive language to convey how Manu (the featured child labourer) lives his life and uses this to create a symbol or generalisation that all Indian Child labourers spend their days the same as Manu. The writer also uses emotive language in conjunction with a highly descriptive writing style to show the vast span between Manu and his products. Angus uses his emotive language to forward the premise of hypocrisy between that of Manu, an underpaid child labourer, and the expensive garments he makes. This makes the reader feel sincere empathy for Manu and all child labourers like him. This empathy that we feel while reading Manu’s story makes us yearn for a better future for Manu. This is the point in the article that Angus mentions how the police are combating the situation. McDonald mentions that they are trying but they are only getting â€Å"the tip of the iceberg†. This phrase makes us believe the government is not doing enough to help Manu and the rest of the child labourers, and therefore directly links to McDonald’s contention about how Indian child labourers are being exploited and government is not doing enough to stop this crime against humanity. The use of logical evidence and case studies within Angus McDonald’s â€Å"A Dollar a Day† essay, provokes the reader into believing that Angus McDonald is highly educated on the matter and that we should agree with him. The use of his case study of Manu gives the issue a small scope on the problem but  as we read through the article, Angus McDonald zooms out and looks at the broader topic. This small scope case study shows us the problem at its roots, then when Angus zooms out and shows us the broader issue of the government not controlling child labour problems efficiently, we feel informed of the matter and connecting to the whole issue because of this case study. The alarmist tone pulls information together nicely with the case study as it gives a real sense of urgency to the issue and this makes the reader side with the writer almost instantly. Angus McDonald uses logical evidence and case studies to push forward that Indian child labourers are being exploited an d the government need to be doing more to help. The writer uses the appeal to sense of justice language device, to arouse anger at the people taking advantage of these children and to make the reader feel as though the Justice Department of India are doing an inadequate job. Angus McDonald goes out of his way to make the criminals mentioned in his article look even worse then what they are. He uses the criminal’s mistreatment of the children to evoke a sense of injustice in the reader by writing sentences such as â€Å"a life of servitude† and â€Å"[a child’s] living nightmare†. These phrases make the reader feel great anger towards the criminals, but just as the readers are most enraged Angus McDonald turns the tables and explains that the criminals are bad but it’s the Justice Departments lack of input that has caused this problem to be so severe. This turns the reader’s anger towards the Justice Department and therefore siding with Angus McDonald’s contention. The writer’ s use of sense of justice helps him manipulate the reader into believing the government should be doing more to stop Indian child labour. Presented to us first in this issue is the picture of a child we are led to believe is Manu. This picture gives a face to our case study. This gives impact to the reader as now we have a much more emotional connection to Manu. This image is linked to the first couple of paragraphs where Manu’s life is described. Once again this makes the issue seem more real and makes the article more impacting. The actual picture is well done as it gives a good contrast between the blue garment and the dirty workshop and the poor  child. It shows the actual society contrast between Manu and the people who buy his clothes. The image is also sloped downwards as though we are looking down upon Manu, meaning pity or guilt. The image used in this piece is a strong device to link the issue to a visual and give it depth into the life of Manu. Throughout Angus McDonald’s piece he explains that Indian children are being exploited as child labour and the government is not doing enough to stop the issue. Angus McDonald uses emotive language, case studies, logical evidence, appeal to a sense of justice and an image to reinforce his opinion that to help children in India the government must do more.

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